The London Blitz is
an event from the Second World War that has always been remembered as
a time of unity. It is often remembered as a time when London and
other cities across Britain were bombarded by the German air force,
known as the Luftwaffe.
In the city of London, writes Richard F. Snow, one can still see the
reminders of the Blitz on “the drab new buildings around St. Paul’s
Cathedral,”1
which is seen as a symbol of Britain’s “simple refusal to
dissolve under the Luftwaffe’s hammering.”2
Though it is seen as a time where Britons joined together and held
out while their homes were destroyed, there was a need to keep morale
up during the Blitz in order to prevent Britain from being put into a
place where they would have to surrender to Nazi Germany. The
methods of morale boosting came from the British Prime Minister,
Winston Churchill, and those who were helping to maintain order in
London during the air raids. The use of the morale boosting tactics
served to not only to keep order in the capital of the British
Empire, but also as an example of British determination to the world
stage.
Total War Par Excellence
Total War Par Excellence
The
origins of the Blitz can be traced back to August 24, 1940 during the
Battle of Britain, when two German bombers, without orders from
control, dropped bombs on the city of London.3
The Royal Air Force (RAF) responded with an air strike on the German
capital of Berlin, which prompted Adolf Hitler to declare that
“London would be subjected to the full wrath of the German
Luftwaffe.”4
On September 4 of that year, annoyed from the continued attack on
German cities, Hitler announced that the Luftwaffe
would destroy the British capital of London and the German air force
to shift its concentration from RAF Fighter Command Bases and
Communications.5
On September 5, the Luftwaffe
had an introductory raid sent to London but Reichsmarshall Herman
Göring gave the official order for raids to commence on September
7.6
On that day, close to one thousand Luftwaffe
bombers were sent across the English Channel on route to the London.7
The attack marked the beginning of the Blitz; a period that would
last from September 1940 to May 1941 with London facing “fifty-seven
consecutive days at the start of the onslaught.”8
In
his book Britain
and 1940: The History, Myth and Popular Memory,
Malcolm Smith notes that the bombings were indiscriminate in who were
killed. Over the course of the Blitz, over forty thousand civilians
were killed, exceeding that of British uniformed casualties until
late 1942.9
For those who lived through the Second World War, an aerial attack
was “total war par
excellence”
and an air war would mean “there will be collateral damage, that
hospitals will be bombed and children killed.”10
To the British public, the collateral damage was seen as a
deliberate act rather than rather than as an “unavoidable
side-effect.”11
A War of Words
One
of the ways the British Government attempted to keep morale up during
the Blitz, and throughout the war, were the speeches of their Prime
Minister Winston Churchill. Churchill was an interesting figure.
Seen by his own party, the Conservatives, and the Opposition as
untrustworthy for “being a turncoat, an extremist, as a politician
more fond of rhetoric and dreams than practicalities.”12
For this reason one can see there was little support for Churchill
in Parliament after the formation of the coalition government on 10
May 1940.13
Winston Churchill British Prime Minister 1940-1945 |
From
a technical stand point, Churchill’s speeches use rhetoric to shape
the view of the threat of German invasion. In his article “Words
as weapons for mass persuasion: dysphemism in Churchill's wartime
speeches”, Eliecer Crespo-Fernández presents the how Churchill
uses words to structure the image of Nazi Germany by “expressing
negative evaluation of behaviours through emotionally loaded and
intense language.”14
One example of this can be seen in an earlier speech before the
Battle of Britain known as “Fight them on the Beaches”. In this
speech, Churchill uses imagery to portray the Nazi Germans as
animals.
… [T]he Navy,
using nearly [one thousand] ships of all kinds, carried over [three
hundred thirty-five thousand] men, French and English from the jaws
of death and shame, to their native land and to the tasks which lie
immediately ahead.15
In
this excerpt, Churchill is describing the Germans as the animalistic
jaws of death to bring to mind “images of human tragedy.”16
Crespo-Fernández notes that the use of this portrayal of humans as
animals is meant to “deny their humanity,”17
this in turn “reinforces the intentional force of the insult and
ultimately justifies their elimination.”18
Churchill, drawing influence from the Nazi Germans, who used this
same kind of animal imagery to portray the Jews as “parasites that
threaten the body of the German nation” and therefore had to be
removed.19
In this case, Churchill is using the animal imagery to unite the
British populous under the idea that the Germans themselves are
animals and inhuman for their attacks on British and French soldiers.
Adolf Hitler Fuhrer of Germany 1934-1945 |
Churchill
used these speeches not only to unite British support against the
Germans, but also to boost morale. This is used by elevating the
British against the Germans through the use of descriptors to place
the Germans in a negative light. The use of negative adjectives,
writes Crespo-Fernández, is “appropriate for creating emphasis and
attaching emotive value to the noun,”20
which in turn makes Churchill’s use of such descriptors useful in
emphasising the threat Nazi Germany was toward Britain. Evidence of
this use can be seen in Churchill’s speech from 11 September 1940:
These cruel, wanton,
indiscriminate bombings of London are, of course, a part of Hitler’s
invasion plans. He hopes, by killing large numbers of civilians…
that he will terrorize and cow the people of this mighty imperial
city, and make them a burden and anxiety to the government and thus
distract our attention unduly from the ferocious onslaught he is
preparing.21
In
this section of that speech, Churchill uses adjectives such as cruel,
wanton
and indiscriminate
to shape the actions of the Germans against the city of London. He
ends this section with the warning that the bombings are only part of
a further attack that Hitler is planning. In using this description,
Churchill can convince his audience that the Germans are not only a
threat to the city of London, but also the empire.
In
this same speech, Churchill uses positive descriptors to meet the
same means Crespo-Fernández describes in the case of London.
Following his description of Germany’s acts on London, Churchill
writes:
…Little does
[Hitler] know the spirit of the British nation, or the tough fibre of
the Londoners, whose forebears played a leading part in the
establishment of Parliament institutions and who have been bread to
value freedom far above their lives.22
In
this case, Churchill uses positive descriptors to paint Britons as
morally just. While before this excerpt, he portrays Hitler and Nazi
Germany negatively, here Churchill argues that the Londoners and, to
a greater extent, Britain will overcome the force of Nazism because
of their determination and democratic heritage. Thus, by looking at
the speeches of Winston Churchill, one can see how the British
government used rhetoric to keep up public support during the time of
the Blitz.
Londoners seeking shelter in the London Undergrounds during an air raid. A common sight during the Blitz. |
An air raid warden coming to rescue after an air raid. |
Though the public
felt strained from all this, it was nothing compared the sleepless
work done by the civil defense, air-raid wardens and firemen who
would be “stretched to their limit and sometimes beyond throughout
the Blitz.”26
The air-raid wardens, writes Malcolm Smith, were seen at the
beginning of the war as a “little Hitler” of sorts, always
shouting to “put that light out!”27
This image changed as the war progressed due because many of these
wardens were locals who had extensive knowledge of their community,
the people and its geography.28
Fires Were Started
Fires Were Started
Auxiliary Firemen putting out a fire on Oxford Street. |
The Auxiliary Fire
Service found itself being used to both boost support within the
empire and to gain support from the United States. Within Britain,
the fire service found themselves the subject of a feature-length
film by Humphrey Jennings 1942 film Fires
Were Started.
In this film, real firemen were used to play the characters as the
audience is shown the working day of the Auxiliary Fire Service
during 1940.31
What is unique about this film, when compared to other British
propaganda films of its time, is that Fires
Were Started
does not feature any signs of the war such as bombings, the cursing
of Nazis, nor does it emphasis the “the courage of the firemen in
the face of great danger.”32
The reason this film is effective as propaganda, according to
Malcolm Smith, is because by the time Fires
Were Started
was made “such notions had become established truths in the realm
of common sense.”33
The American Connection
The efforts of London’s fire brigade also found its way into the United States as a way to gain further support. On February 1, 1941, the Officer Commanding London Fire Services, Major F. W. Jackson DSO, sent word to the secretary of the War Artists Advisory Committee (WAAC), E. M. O’Rourke Dickey, that he had found a group of artists within his force with “a large amount of hidden talent.”34 Jackson had hoped that the WAAC would be able to judge them and, if they were of sufficient quality, be sent to the United States.35 After the proposal gained the support of the WAAC chairman, Kenneth Clark, Dickey made arrangements for J. B. Manson, former curator of the Tate Gallery, to inspect the art pieces.36 Upon inspection, Dickey, who had accompanied Manson to see the paintings, concluded in a message sent to Clark that the artworks would be “worth sending to the United States for propaganda purposes.”37
The efforts of London’s fire brigade also found its way into the United States as a way to gain further support. On February 1, 1941, the Officer Commanding London Fire Services, Major F. W. Jackson DSO, sent word to the secretary of the War Artists Advisory Committee (WAAC), E. M. O’Rourke Dickey, that he had found a group of artists within his force with “a large amount of hidden talent.”34 Jackson had hoped that the WAAC would be able to judge them and, if they were of sufficient quality, be sent to the United States.35 After the proposal gained the support of the WAAC chairman, Kenneth Clark, Dickey made arrangements for J. B. Manson, former curator of the Tate Gallery, to inspect the art pieces.36 Upon inspection, Dickey, who had accompanied Manson to see the paintings, concluded in a message sent to Clark that the artworks would be “worth sending to the United States for propaganda purposes.”37
Auxiliary Firemen by Leonard Rosoman. |
By March 10, 1941,
preparations were made to show the “first public ‘firemen artist’
exhibition” in London at the Central School of Arts and Crafts,
serving as a practice before sending the one hundred pieces of art to
the United States.38
It was titled The
Great Fire of London,
as a reference to the seventeenth century event as to promise
“paintings of spectacular action and heroism.39
The collection was met with as many as thirty thousand visitors and
high praise from journalists, who had been told in advance of the
intentions for the exhibition.40
British newspapers, such as the Daily
Telegraph,
claimed that the United States was about to see “the most dramatic
collection of pictures ever assembled: impressions of the Siege of
London as set down by 20 auxiliary firemen and women auxiliaries.”41
When the exhibition was finally sent out for the United States, it
was decided to send a group comprised of “one auxiliary artist, one
injured auxiliary Blitz veteran and one senior regular fireman, who
would be capable of answering technical queries.”42
The strategy of the
whole operation was to gain further support from the United States.
By sending art work depicting the events of the Blitz on London and
having firemen who had experienced working in those conditions first
hand, the American public would then be moved to push their
government to send more support to the British, and it was a success
in gaining American support. At the end of 1942, over half a million
Americans attended the exhibitions, with over six hundred thousand
attending the lectures provided by the firemen.43
In
conclusion, through studying the forms of propaganda used to boost
morale during the Blitz, one can see that it not only served to keep
the support of the British people but also served to gain support
from the United States. Churchill’s wartime speeches shaped the
people to view Nazi Germany as the dangerous threat it was and to
emphasis the determination of the British, particularly in London, to
hold out during the war. The efforts of those serving as air-raid
wardens and in London’s Fire Service were used as examples for the
British people during the war, the latter even being used to gain
further support in the United States. These images tactics proved to
be successful in their mission and have played a part in shaping the
memory of the Second World War. Therefore, the use of propaganda
served a role in forming the united image that has shaped the popular
memory of the Blitz.
Bibliography
Aceto, Guy. “Shadows
of the Blitz in Today's London.” World
War II 24,
no. 5 (January 2010): 28-30. Academic
Search Complete,
EBSCOhost (accessed
February 6, 2014).
Attar, Rob. “Where
History Happened: The Blitz.” BBC
History Magazine.
October 12, 2009. http://www.historyextra.com/blitz.
Churchill, Winston.
His
Finest Hours: The War Speeches of Winston Churchill.
Edited by Graham Stewart. London: Quercus, 2007.
Crespo-Fernández,
Eliecer. “Words as weapons for mass persuasion: dysphemism in
Churchill's wartime speeches.” Text
& Talk33,
no. 3 (May 2013): 311-330. Academic
Search Complete,
EBSCOhost (accessed
February 23, 2014).
Kelly, Anthony.
“Taking the Blitz to America.” History
Today 62,
no. 6 (June 2012): 21-27. Academic
Search Complete,
EBSCOhost (accessed
February 6, 2014).
“More information
about: Germany bombs London.” BBC
History.
Accessed February 23, 2014.
http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/events/germany_bombs_london.
Smith, Malcolm.
Britain
and 1940: History, Myth and Popular Memory.
London: Rouledge, 2000.
Snow, Richard F.
“London calling.” American
Heritage
42, no. 8 (December 1991): 31. Academic
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EBSCOhost
(accessed February 23, 2014).
Notes
1
Richard F. Snow, "London calling," American Heritage 42,
no. 8 (December 1991): 31, Academic
Search Complete,
EBSCOhost.
2
Ibid.
3
Guy Aceto, "Shadows of the Blitz in Today's London," World
War II 24, no. 5
(January 2010): 28, Academic
Search Complete,
EBSCOhost.
4
Ibid.
5
“More information about: Germany bombs London,” BBC
History,
http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/events/germany_bombs_london.
6
Ibid.
7
Rob Attar, “Where History Happened: The Blitz,” BBC
History Magazine,
http://www.historyextra.com/blitz.
8
Ibid.
9
Malcom Smith, Britain
and 1940: History, Myth and Popular Memory,
(London: Rouledge, 2000), 70.
10
Ibid., 71.
11
Ibid.
12
Smith, 91.
13
Ibid.
14
Eliecer Crespo-Fernández, “Words as weapons for mass persuasion:
dysphemism in Churchill's wartime speeches,” Text
& Talk33, no. 3
(May 2013): 316, Academic
Search Complete,
EBSCOhost.
15
Winston Churchill, His
Finest Hours: The War Speeches of Winston Churchill,
edited by Graham Stewart, (London: Quercus, 2007), 50.
16
Crespo-Fernández, 319.
17
Ibid., 318.
18
Ibid.
19
Crespo-Fernández, 318.
20
Ibid., 325.
21
Churchill, 81.
22
Churchill, 81.
23
Smith, 77.
24
Ibid.
25
Ibid.
26
Smith, 77.
27
Ibid.
28
Ibid, 78.
29
“More information about: Germany bombs London.”
30
Smith, 78.
31
Ibid.
32
Ibid., 80.
33
Smith, 80.
34
Anthony Kelly, “Taking the Blitz to America,” History
Today 62, no. 6
(June 2012): 22, Academic
Search Complete,
EBSCOhost.
35
Ibid.
36
Ibid.
37
Ibid.
38
Ibid., 23.
39
Ibid.
40
Ibid.
41
Ibid.
42
Kelly, 23.
43
Ibid., 27.
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